ABSTRACT: This study explored the relationship between episodic memory and anosognosia (a lack of deficit awareness) among patients with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD). Participants studied words and pictures for subsequent memory tests. Healthy older adults made fewer false recognition errors when trying to remember pictures compared with words, suggesting that the perceptual distinctiveness of picture memories enhanced retrieval monitoring (the distinctiveness heuristic). In contrast, although participants with AD could discriminate between studied and nonstudied items, they had difficulty recollecting the specific presentation formats (words or pictures), and they had limited use of the distinctiveness heuristic. Critically, the demands of the memory test modulated the relationship between memory accuracy and anosognosia. Greater anosognosia was associated with impaired memory accuracy when participants with AD tried to remember words but not when they tried to remember pictures. These data further delineate the retrieval monitoring difficulties among individuals with AD and suggest that anosognosia measures are most likely to correlate with memory tests that require the effortful retrieval of nondistinctive information.

ABSTRACT: The authors investigated two retrieval-monitoring processes. Subjects studied red words and pictures and then decided whether test words had been studied in red font (red word test) or as pictures (picture test). Memory confusions were lower on the picture test than on the red word test, implicating a distinctiveness heuristic. Memory confusions also were lower when study formats were mutually exclusive (the same item was never studied as both a red word and a picture), compared with a nonexclusive condition, implicating a recall-to-reject process. When the to-be-recollected events were pictures, older adults used each monitoring strategy as effectively as did younger adults.

ABSTRACT: The distinctiveness heuristic is a diagnostic monitoring strategy whereby a subject expects a vivid recollection if a test item has been seen during the study session; the absence of a vivid recollection suggests the test item is novel. Consistent with the hypothesis that memory monitoring is dependent upon the frontal lobes, previous work using a repetition-lag paradigm found that patients with frontal lobe lesions were unable to use the distinctiveness heuristic. Evidence from recent neuroimaging studies, however, has suggested that use of the distinctiveness heuristic decreases the need for frontal processing. The present study used the criterial recollection task to revisit the question of whether patients with frontal lobe lesions are able to use a distinctiveness heuristic. Subjects studied black words paired with the same word in red font, a corresponding picture of the word, or both. They then took three memory tests designed to elicit false recognition of presented items. Both frontal lesion patients and matched control subjects showed intact ability to use the distinctiveness heuristic to reduce false recognition when tested on whether items were previously presented as pictures compared to red words. This use of the distinctiveness heuristic is evidence that patients with frontal lesions can use certain diagnostic monitoring strategies during recognition memory tasks when given guidance in coordinating their decision-making processes. This result suggests that the frontal lobes are necessary for self-initiation of this strategy during recognition memory tasks.

ABSTRACT: Alzheimer's disease (AD) reduces associative effects on false recognition in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott task, either due to impaired memory for gist or impaired use of gist in memory decisions. Gist processes were manipulated by blocking or mixing studied words according to their associations and by varying the associative strength between studied and nonstudied words at test. Both associative blocking and associative strength had smaller effects on false recognition in AD patients than in control participants, consistent with gist memory impairments. However, unlike the case with control participants, blocking influenced true and false recognition equally in AD patients, demonstrating an overdependence on gist when making memory decisions. AD also impaired item-specific recollections, relative to control participants, as true recognition of studied words was reduced even when the two groups were equated on gist-based false recognition. We propose that the overdependence on degraded gist memory in AD is caused by even larger impairments in item-specific recollections.

ABSTRACT: People often use recollection to avoid false memories. At least two types of recollection-based monitoring processes can be identified in the literature. Recall-to-reject is based on the recall of logically inconsistent information (which disqualifies the false event from having occurred), whereas the distinctiveness heuristic is based on the failure to recall to-be-expected information (which is diagnostic of non-occurrence). We attempted to investigate these hypothetical monitoring processes in a single task, as a first step at delineating the functional relationship between them. By design, participants could reject familiar lures by (1) recalling them from a to-be-excluded list (recall-to-reject) or (2) realising the absence of expected picture recollections (the distinctiveness heuristic). Both manipulations reduced false recognition in young adults, suggesting that these two types of monitoring were deployed on the same test. In contrast, older adults had limited success in reducing false recognition with either manipulation, indicating deficits in recollection-based monitoring processes. Depending on how a retrieval task is structured, attempts to use one monitoring process might interfere with another, especially in older adults.

ABSTRACT: Patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease (AD) were compared with age-matched control subjects on an associative recognition task. Subjects studied pairs of unrelated words and were later asked to distinguish between these same studied pairs (intact) and new pairs that contained either rearranged studied words (rearranged) or nonstudied words (nonstudied). Studied pairs were presented either once or 3 times. Repetition increased hits to intact pairs in both groups, but repetition increased false alarms to rearranged pairs only in patients. This latter pattern indicates that repetition increased familiarity of the rearranged pairs, but only the control subjects were able to counter this familiarity by recalling the originally studied pairs (a recall-to-reject process). AD impaired this recall-to-reject process, leading to more familiarity- based false alarms. These data support the idea that recollection-based monitoring processes are impaired in mild AD.

ABSTRACT: Younger and older adults (mean years = 20.5 and 75) studied lists of associated words for a final recognition test. The length (5,10, or 15 associates) and modality (auditory or visual) of study lists were manipulated within subjects. For both groups, increasing the number of associates increased illusory recollections of a related lure's presentation (measured by source judgments and the Memory Characteristics Questionnaire). This pattern suggests that associative activation of the lure influenced illusory recollection, and aging spared this process. In contrast, age impaired the recollection of source for studied words (auditory or visual) and had identical effects on source attributions for related lures. This pattern suggests that the true recollection of source influenced illusory recollection of source, and age impaired this process. To account for these and other results, we propose that associative activation drives an attribution process that binds subjectively detailed features to a false memory.

ABSTRACT: In this study, we examined how implicit and explicit memory for perceptual information (modality and voice) and lexical information varied across three subject groups: healthy young adults, healthy older adults, and age-matched older adults with dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT). These groups exhibited cross-modality (abstract) priming of the same magnitude. However, young adults produced greater modality- and voice-specific priming than the other two groups, whose performance was equivalent, suggesting that aging, but not DAT, reduced form-specific priming. Young adults demonstrated better recognition memory than healthy older adults, who in turn exhibited better recognition memory than older adults with DAT. In young adults, recognition memory was also sensitive to perceptual information. These findings indicate that aging can affect implicit memory for perceptual information, whereas DAT magnifies the effect of aging on explicit memory.

ABSTRACT: Retrieval monitoring enhances episodic memory accuracy. For instance, false recognition is reduced when subjects base their decisions on more distinctive recollections, a retrieval monitoring process called the distinctiveness heuristic. We tested the hypothesis that autobiographical elaboration during study (i.e., generating autobiographical memories in response to cue words) would lead to more distinctive recollections than other item-specific encoding tasks, enhancing retrieval monitoring accuracy at test. Consistent with this hypothesis, false recognition was less likely when subjects had to search their memory for previous autobiographical elaborations, compared to previous semantic judgments. These false recognition effects were dissociated from true recognition effects across four experiments, implicating a recollection-based monitoring process that was independent from familiarity-based processes. Separately obtained subjective measures provided converging evidence for this conclusion. The cognitive operations engaged during autobiographical elaboration can lead to distinctive recollections, making them less prone to memory distortion than other types of deep or semantic encoding.

ABSTRACT: Thinking about the meaning of studied words (deep processing) enhances memory on typical recognition tests, relative to focusing on perceptual features (shallow processing). One explanation for this levels-of-processing effect is that deep processing leads to the encoding of more distinctive representations (i.e., more unique semantic or conceptual features that can be recollected to differentiate the words). This recollective distinctiveness hypothesis predicts that deep processing should reduce false recognition errors, because expecting more distinctive recollections can facilitate retrieval monitoring accuracy (i.e., a distinctiveness heuristic). We report several experiments confirming this prediction, while ruling out explanations based on familiarity or overall memory strength. Additional support for the distinctiveness hypothesis was that a manipulation designed to selectively enhance the distinctiveness of words in the shallow condition eliminated the levels-of-processing effect on false recognition. These findings suggest that conceptual processing can elicit the distinctiveness heuristic, and that recollective distinctiveness drives levels-of-processing effects.

ABSTRACT: Are nonconscious processes sufficient to cause false memories of a nonstudied event? To investigate this issue, we controlled and measured conscious processing in the DRM task, in which studying associates (e.g., bed, rest, awake...) causes false memories of nonstudied associates (e.g., sleep). During the study phase, subjects studied visually masked associates at extremely rapid rates, followed by immediate recall. After this initial phase, nonstudied test words were rapidly presented for perceptual identification, followed by recognition memory judgments. On the perceptual identification task, we found significant priming of nonstudied associates, relative to control words. We also found significant false recognition of these nonstudied associates, even when subjects did not recall this word at study or identify it at test, indicating that nonconscious processes can cause false recognition. These recognition effects were found immediately after studying each list of associates, but not on a delayed test that occurred after the presentation of several intervening lists. Nonconscious processes are sufficient to cause this memory illusion on immediate tests, but may be insufficient for more vivid and lasting false memories.

ABSTRACT: We investigated the influence of distinctive encoding on the Jacoby and Whitehouse (1989) illusion. Subjects studied visually presented words that were associated with either an auditory presentation of the same word (nondistinctive encoding) or a picture of the object (distinctive encoding). In both conditions, words were visually presented on the recognition test, and half were preceded by brief repetition primes. Priming test items increased hits and false alarms in the auditory condition, demonstrating the Jacoby-Whitehouse illusion. This illusion was reduced in the picture condition. In order to test whether this distinctiveness effect was caused by a recollection-based response strategy (i.e., the distinctiveness heuristic), we minimized recollection-based responding by having subjects make speeded recognition decisions. Contrary to the distinctiveness heuristic hypothesis, speeded responding did not eliminate the distinctiveness effect on the Jacoby-Whitehouse illusion. Picture encoding may reduce this illusion via a shift in preretrieval orientation, as opposed to a postretrieval editing process.

ABSTRACT: According to the distinctiveness heuristic, subjects rely more on detailed recollections (and less on familiarity) when memory is tested for pictures relative to words, leading to reduced false recognition. If so, then neural regions that have been implicated in effortful postretrieval monitoring (e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) might be recruited less heavily when trying to remember pictures. We tested this prediction with the criterial recollection task. Subjects studied black words, paired with either the same word in red font or a corresponding colored picture. Red words were repeated at study to equate recognition hits for red words and pictures. During fMRI scanning, alternating red word memory tests and picture memory tests were given, using only white words as test stimuli (say "yes" only if you recollect a corresponding red word or picture, respectively). These tests were designed so that subjects had to rely on memory for the criterial information. Replicating prior behavioral work, we found enhanced rejection of lures on the picture test compared to the red word test, indicating that subjects had used a distinctiveness heuristic. Critically, dorsolateral prefrontal activity was reduced when rejecting familiar lures on the picture test, relative to the red word test. These findings indicate that reducing false recognition via the distinctiveness heuristic is not heavily dependent on frontally mediated postretrieval monitoring processes.

ABSTRACT: False recognition in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been shown to be greater following auditory study than following visual study, but there are competing explanations for this effect. We generalized this phenomenon in Experiment 1, finding an equivalent modality effect for associative (DRM) lists and categorized lists. Because conscious generation and subsequent monitoring of related lures during study is infrequent for categorized lists, this result is inconsistent with the idea that the modality effect is due to a study-based monitoring process. An alternative explanation is that visual study impairs relational processing relative to auditory study, which could cause a modality effect by lowering false recognition of related lures. We tested this idea in Experiment 2, by switching to a meaning-based test that is sensitive only to the retrieval of relational information. A modality effect was not obtained for either type of list on this test. The results from both experiments were predicted by a test-based monitoring account, rather than by the study-based monitoring or relational processing accounts.

ABSTRACT: Deep encoding, relative to shallow encoding, has been shown to increase the probability of false memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm (Thapar & McDermott, 2001; Toglia, Neuschatz, & Goodwin, 1999). In two experiments, we showed important limitations on the generalizability of this phenomenon; these limitations are clearly predicted by existing theories regarding the mechanisms underlying such false memories (e.g., Roediger, Watson, McDermott, & Gallo, 2001). Specifically, asking subjects to attend to phonological relations among lists of phonologically associated words (e.g., weep, steep, etc.) increased the likelihood of false recall (Experiment 1) and false recognition (Experiment 2) of a related, nonpresented associate (e.g., sleep), relative to a condition in which subjects attended to meaningful relations among the words. These findings occurred along with a replication of prior findings (i. e., a semantic encoding task, relative to a phonological encoding task, enhanced the likelihood of false memory arising from a list of semantically associated words), and they place important constraints on theoretical explanations of false memory.

ABSTRACT: Whether recall of studied words (e.g., parsley, rosemary, thyme) could reduce false recognition of related lures (e.g., basil) was investigated. Subjects studied words from several categories for a final recognition memory test. Half of the subjects were given standard test instructions, and half were instructed to use recall to reduce false recognition. Manipulation checks indicated that the latter instructions did elicit a recall-to-reject strategy. However, false recognition was selectively reduced only when all the words from a category could be recalled (Experiment 1). When longer categories were used, thereby minimizing exhaustive recall, a recall-to-reject strategy was ineffective at reducing false recognition (Experiment 2). It is suggested that exhaustively recalling a category allowed subjects to disqualify the lure as having occurred, analogous to recall-to-reject demonstrations in other tasks. In contrast, partially recalling a category did not help to diagnose the lure as nonstudied.These findings constrain theories of recall-based monitoring processes.

ABSTRACT: Seamon, Luo, and Gallo (1998) reported evidence that nonconscious processes could produce false recognition in a converging-associates task, whereby subjects falsely remember a nonstudied lure (e.g., sleep) after studying a list of related words (bed, rest, awake...). Zeelenberg, Plomp, and Raaijmakers (see record 2003-07789-006; 2003) failed to observe this false recognition effect when list word recognition was at chance. We critically evaluate the evidence for nonsconscious processing and report the results of a new experiment designed to overcome previous methodological limitations. Consistent with Seamon et al., we found that conscious activation of a related lure during study was not necessary for its subsequent recognition; consistent with Zeelenberg et al., we found no evidence for recognition of related lures under conditions where there was no memory for studied words. It is currently unknown whether conscious recollection of the studied items is necessary for false recognition or if nonconscious activation of the lure is sufficient.

ABSTRACT: We devised criterial recollection tests to investigate why testing memory for pictures elicits lower false recognition than testing memory for words. Subjects studied unrelated black words paired either with the same word in red font, a corresponding picture, or both. They then took three memory tests, always using black words: a recognition test (say "yes" to all studied items), a red word-test, and a picture-test (say "yes" only if you recollect a red word or a picture, respectively). Regardless of whether pictures were more or less familiar than red words, false recognition was lowest on the picture test. These results cannot be explained easily by familiarity or strength-based criterion shifts. Instead, they suggest that subjects expected more detailed recollections for pictures, thereby facilitating a diagnostic monitoring process (the "distinctiveness heuristic"). This recollective difference also influenced source monitoring errors (an "ithad- to-be-a-word" effect), again suggesting that detailed recollective expectations influence monitoring processes.

ABSTRACT: We investigated source misattributions in the DRM false memory paradigm. Ss studied words in one of two voices, manipulated between-lists (pure-voice lists) or within-list (mixed-voice lists), and were subsequently given a recognition test with voice-attribution judgements. Experiments 1 and 2 used visual tests. With pure-voice lists (Experiment 1), subjects frequently attributed related lures to the corresponding study voice, despite having the option to not respond. Further, these erroneous attributions remained high with mixed-voice lists (Experiment 2). Thus, even when their related lists were not associated with a particular voice, subjects misattributed the lures to one of the voices. Attributions for studied items were fairly accurate in both cases. Experiments 3 and 4 used auditory tests. With pure-voice lists (Experiment 3), subjects frequently attributed related lures and studied items to the corresponding study voice, regardless of the test voice. In contrast, with mixed-voice lists (Experiment 4), subjects frequently attributed related lures and studied items to the corresponding test voice, regardless of the study voice. These findings indicate that source attributions can be sensitive to voice information provided either at study or at test.

ABSTRACT: Associative lists created by the same means are remarkably different in their propensity to elicit false memories in the DRM (J. Deese, 1959; H. L. Roediger and K. B. McDermott, 1995) paradigm. The authors confirmed this variability in Experiment 1 (N = 80 undergraduate students) by constructing lists in the typical fashion but with words that were weakly associated to their critical words. Low levels of false recall occurred. In Experiment 2 (N = 90 undergraduate students) these results were replicated at three presentation rates. Also, slower presentation rates yielded lower false recall for both strong and weak lists. Experiment 3 (N = 90 undergraduate students) showed that false recognition rates also varied across lists, as did subjective ratings accompanying false recognition. The authors interpret these findings as supporting an activation/monitoring framework. Lists vary in a principled way in their tendency to activate the critical item, and slowing the presentation rate permits greater accrual of item-specific information that makes monitoring of retrieval more accurate.

ABSTRACT: R. E. Smith and R. R. Hunt (1998) reported a dramatic reduction in false remembering in a list-learning paradigm by switching from auditory to visual presentation at study. The current authors replicated these modality effects in college students, using written recall and visual recognition tests but obtained smaller effects than those in Smith and Hunt's study. In contrast, no modality effect occurred on auditory recognition tests. Manipulating study and test modality within-subjects (Experiment 2) and between-subjects (Experiment 3) yielded similar results. It was also found that subjectss frequently judged critical nonstudied words as having been presented in the modality of their corresponding study lists. The authors concluded that subjects could retrieve distinctive information about a study list's presentation modality to reduce false remembering but only did so under certain conditions. The modality effect on false remembering is a function of both encoding and retrieval factors.

ABSTRACT: In the DRM (Deese/Roediger and McDermott) false memory paradigm, 96 college students studied lists of words associated with nonpresented critical words. They were tested in one of four instructional conditions. In a standard condition, subjects were not warned about the DRM Effect. In three other conditions, they were told to avoid false recognition of critical words. One group was warned before study of the lists (affecting encoding and retrieval processes), and two groups were warned after study (affecting only retrieval processes). Replicating prior work, the warning before study considerably reduced false recognition. The warning after study also reduced false recognition, but only when critical items had never been studied; when critical items were studied in half the lists so that subjects had to monitor memory for their presence or absence, the warning after study had little effect on false recognition. Because warned subjects were trying to avoid false recognition, the high levels of false recognition in the latter condition cannot be due to strategically guessing that critical test items were studied. False memories in the DRM paradigm are not caused by such liberal criterion shifts.

ABSTRACT: In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, Ss study lists of words that are designed to elicit the recall of an associatively related critical item. The 55 lists developed provided levels of false recall ranging from .01 to .65, and understanding this variability should provide a key to understanding this memory illusion. The authors assessed the contribution of seven factors in creating false recall of critical items in the DRM paradigm. This analysis accounted for approximately 68% of the variance in false recall, with two main predictors: associative connections from the study words to the critical item and recallability of the lists. Taken together, the variance in false recall captured by these predictors accounted for 84% of the variance that can be explained, given the reliability of the false recall measures. Therefore, the results of this analysis strongly constrain theories of false memory in this paradigm, suggesting that at least two factors determine the propensity of DRM lists to elicit false recall. The results fit well within the theoretical framework postulating that both semantic activation of the critical item and strategic monitoring processes influence the probability of false recall and false recognition in this paradigm.

ABSTRACT: Examined the degree to which 4 implicit tests and 2 explicit tests, all involving auditory presentation, were sensitive to the perceptual characteristics of the stimuli presented during study in a sample of 228 undergraduates. Presenting stimuli visually decreased priming in all the implicit memory tests, relative to auditory presentation. However, changing voice between study and test decreased priming only in the implicit memory tests requiring identification of words degraded by noise or by low-pass filtering, but not in those tests requiring generation from word portions (stems and fragments). Modality effects without voice effects were observed in cued recall, but the opposite pattern of results (voice effects without modality effects) was obtained in recognition. The primary new finding is the demonstration that auditory memory tests, both explicit and implicit, differ in their sensitivity to the perceptual information encoded during the study.

ABSTRACT: In four experiments, we examined the degree to which imaging written words as spoken by a familiar talker differs from direct perception (hearing words spoken by that talker) and reading words (without imagery) on implicit and explicit tests. Subjects first performed a surface encoding task on spoken, imagined as spoken, or visually presented words, and then were given either an implicit test (perceptual identification or stem completion) or an explicit test (recognition or cued recall) involving auditorily presented words. Auditory presentation at study produced larger priming effects than did imaging or reading. Imaging and reading yielded priming effects of similar magnitude, whereas imaging produced lower performance than reading on the explicit test of cued recall. Voice changes between study and test weakened priming on the implicit tests, but did not affect performance on the explicit tests. Imagined voice changes affected priming only in the implicit task of stem completion. These findings show that the sensitivity of a memory test to perceptual information, either directly perceived or imagined, is an important dimension for dissociating incidental (implicit) and intentional (explicit) retrieval processes.

ABSTRACT: A semantic relatedness decision task was used to investigate whether phonological recoding occurs automatically and whether it mediates lexical access in visual word recognition and reading. In this task, 82 Ss read a pair of words and decided whether they were related or unrelated in meaning. In Exp 1, unrelated word-homophone pairs (e.g., lion-bare) and their visual controls (e.g., lion-bean) as well as related word pairs (e.g., fish-net) were presented. Homophone pairs were more likely to be judged as related or more slowly rejected as unrelated than their control pairs, suggesting phonological access of word meanings. In Exp 2, word-pseudohomophone pairs (e.g., table-chare) and their visual controls (e.g., table-chark) as well as related and unrelated word pairs were presented. Pseudohomophone pairs were more likely to be judged as related or more slowly rejected as unrelated than their control pairs, again suggesting automatic phonological recoding in reading.

ABSTRACT: Investigated whether the false memory effect (the false remembrance of nonstudied words associated with the list items, when exposed to lists of semantically related words) exists if Ss are unable to recognize the list items. Lists of semantically related words were presented with or without a concurrent memory load at rates of 2 sec, 250 msec, or 20 msec per word (Exp 1, between-subjects design) and 2 sec or 20 msec per word (Exp 2, within-subjects design) to a total of 104 undergraduate Ss. Results showed that Ss falsely recognized semantically related nonstudied words in all conditions, even when they were unable to discriminate studied words from unrelated nonstudied words. Recognition of list items was unnecessary for the occurrence of the false memory effect. Results suggest that this memory illusion can be based on the nonconscious activation of semantic concepts during list presentation.

ABSTRACT: Sought to determine whether Ss can avoid creating false memories, as outlined in H. H. Roediger, III and K. B. McDermott's (1995) false recognition paradigm, if they are forewarned about this memory illusion. 48 undergraduates were presented with semantically related word lists, followed by a recognition test. The test was composed of studied words, semantically related nonstudied words (critical lures), and unrelated nonstudied words. One group of Ss was uninformed about the false recognition effect, a 2nd group was urged to minimize all false alarms, and a 3rd group was forewarned about falsely recognizing critical lures. Compared with the uninformed and cautious Ss, the forewarned Ss reduced their false alarm rate for critical lures, and they made remember and know judgments equally often for recognized studied words and critical lures. Forewarning did not eliminate the false recognition effect, however, as these Ss and those in the other groups made numerous false recognitions in this task.

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ABSTRACT: Processing approaches to cognition have a long history, from act psychology to the present, but perhaps their greatest boost was given by the success and dominance of the levels-of-processing framework. We review the history of processing approaches, and explore the influence of the levels-of-processing approach, the procedural approach advocated by Paul Kolers, and the transfer-appropriate processing framework. Processing approaches emphasise the procedures of mind and the idea that memory storage can be usefully conceptualised as residing in the same neural units that originally processed information at the time of encoding. Processing approaches emphasise the unity and interrelatedness of cognitive processes and maintain that they can be dissected into separate faculties only by neglecting the richness of mental life. We end by pointing to future directions for processing approaches.

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ABSTRACT: In 1761 Benjamin Franklin invented the armonica (often referred to as the glass harmonica), an instrument designed to simplify the playing of the musical glasses. The instrument immediately became popular and inspired compositions by Wolfgang Mozart, who had the opportunity to hear and play one at the house of Franz Anton Mesmer. Armonica music was used by Mesmer in his seances, because he felt it could promote healing by propagating a mystical fluid that he called animal magnetism through the body. After Mesmer's theories were debunked by a highly respected panel of scientists, the armonica fell out of vogue. Because Franklin was on the panel that examined and discredited mesmerism, he indirectly contributed to his own invention's demise.

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